Being-for-itself and Being-for-others.

that humans have no predetermined essence or purpose; instead, they must use their autonomy to make meaningful decisions in life without relying on external forces.

Jean-Paul Sartre’s “Being and Nothingness” is the fundamental text of Existentialism. His examination of ontology constantly reviews previous existential philosophy by building on, and refuting, the work of prior philosophers.

Sartre begins with a framework on nothingness and negations. Nothingness does not have being but is supported by being. It comes into existence through the for-itself and allows consciousness to exist. Negations are acts which contain negativity as part of their structure (ex: absence.) He then progresses to an examination of Bad Faith. This is essentially a false consciousness which a person pursues to flee from their own freedom.

The most theoretically important part of the book regarding ontology is Sartre’s explanation of Being-for-itself and Being-for-others. Being-for-itself is an examination of the works of Descartes, Husserl, etc, into the nature of the individuals being and consciousness. “The Other” is a concept from Hegel that Sartre alters to explain others around us. For Sartre “The Other” is in a constant battle to deprive the other person of their freedom without extinguishing their being.

The second half of his treatise deals with issues mostly empirical in nature. Sartre has an impeccable knowledge of philosophy and the physical science up to 1943 (philosophy, biology, psychology, pyschics, etc..) He uses the theory of ontology to reexamine empirical issues where he finds scientific fields lacking. In the end Sartre devises a `Existential Psychoanalysis’ (Existentialism) to examine psychological phenomenon through an ontological lens.

For Sartre humans are thrown into the world, in a situation, but have absolute freedom over choice. They are responsible for their choice. Whether they chose to actively pursue something or passively submit THEY ARE RESPONSIBLE. This responsibility is not meant as an ethical judgment but rather a statement of fact.

Sartre almost completely eschews ethical judgments in “Being and Nothingness.” His objective throughout the work is to explain the ontological foundation of being. He reserves 2 pages at the end of the book discussing ethics. His advice is to strive for a synthesis of the being-in-itself with the being-for-itself (a true single consciousness between body and mind.) A person can then strive to attain their values (which are subjective in nature.)

Note: Sartre assumes his readers have read essentially every existential philosopher since Plato. He gives brief descriptions of each philosopher’s theory but I strongly recommend you read their work before “Being and Nothingness.” Sartre also uses incredibly obtuse language (which is made worse through translation.) While not as bad as other philosophers his work forces the person to actively read everything he says. Sartre commands an excellent understanding of science but actively rejects some of its most basic premises because science fails to ask the right questions. While some of the science he talks about has long been disproven for the most part his understanding of science remains valid.

Note #2: I read the Gramercy edition.

I strongly recommend “Being and Nothingness” to anyone interested in ontology with a strong background in philosophy and the psychical sciences.